Prenatal environment and developmental trajectories: the intrauterine growth restriction.

The prenatal environment is of fundamental importance for the fetus, as the fetus is particularly susceptible to environmental influences while in utero, and several prenatal adversities may constitute a risk factor for fetal growth and child development. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) refers to a pregnancy complication involving the inadequate growth of the fetus in utero, with potential programming consequences on the children's brain-behavior development. In this narrative review we will discuss the most recent literature about IUGR children, including their development and their relationship with the prenatal and postnatal environment. In particular, as an attempt to an adaptive response to intrauterine changes, the brain development of IUGR fetuses follows abnormal developmental pathways, which likely has cascade effects on the future neurodevelopmental outcomes of the children. Cognitive and motor functions are in fact impaired, as well as IUGR children present, across studies, poor socio-emotional abilities and a greater risk for internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. The current work also highlights how the postnatal environment, and in particular parental care, has an important role in IUGR development, acting as a protective factor, or otherwise increasing their constitutional vulnerabilities. Overall, this narrative review has important implications for clinical practice, suggesting the need for long-term follow-up care with IUGR children and strategies supporting parent-child interactions as well.

Early Childhood Temperamental Trajectories following Very Preterm Birth and Their Association with Parenting Style.

Childhood temperament is an early characteristic shaping later life adjustment. However, little is currently known about the stability of early temperament and its susceptibility to the environment in children born very preterm (VPT; <33 weeks' gestation). Here, we investigated infant-to-childhood temperamental trajectories, and their interaction with parental practices, in VPT children. Maternal reports of infant temperament were collected in 190 infants (mean age: 11.27 months; range 9−18 months) enrolled in the longitudinal Evaluation of Preterm Imaging (ePrime; Eudra: CT 2009-011602-42) study, using the ePrime questionnaire on infant temperament. At 4−7 years of age, further assessments of child temperament (Children's Behavior Questionnaire­Very Short Form) and parenting style (Arnold's Parenting Scale) were conducted. Results showed that more difficult temperament in infancy was associated with increased Negative Affectivity in childhood, regardless of parenting practices. This lends support to the stability of early temperamental traits reflecting negative emotionality. In contrast, a lax parenting style moderated the relationship between easy infant temperament and Negative Affectivity at 4−7 years, such that an easier infant temperament was increasingly associated with higher childhood Negative Affectivity scores as parental laxness increased. These results highlight a potential vulnerability of VPT infants considered by their mothers to be easy to handle, as they may be more susceptible to the effects of suboptimal parenting in childhood.